From Information to Empowerment: Refining Indonesia’s Crisis and Risk Communication Model through Digital Literacy
Article Sidebar
Crisis communication,
Risk communication,
Public trust,
Indonesia
Main Article Content
Nani Kurniasari
Melisa Arisanty
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed both the strengths and limits of government crisis and risk communication digitally connected but socially diverse societies such as Indonesia. Rapid dissemination was achieved, yet misinformation, declining trust, and uneven digital literacy constrained public engagement. This study examines digital literacy as a mediating factor between information provision and citizen empowerment during Indonesia’s pandemic response. Using a case study of central government communication, it analyzes regulations, public messaging, and digital engagement practices to refine an existing crisis and risk communication model. By integrating the Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (CERC) framework and Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), the research highlights how transparency, participation, and inclusivity can be systematically embedded into government communication. Findings shows that digital literacy is not only a technical skill but also a socio-political resource shaping trust, compliance, and resilience. The proposed model shift emphasis from one-way information delivery toward participatory, trust-based, and digitally inclusive practices. While grounded in Indonesia, the study offers comparative insights for other contexts where digital innovation intersects with fragile trust and uneven preparedness. This study contributes theoretically by extending CERC and SCCT with a literacy dimension, and practically by outlining pathways for governments to foster resilience through digital literacy initiatives.
Downloads
Article Details
Copyright (c) 2025 Nani Kurniasari, Melisa Arisanty
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
- Authors retain copyright and acknowledge that the Journal of Multidisciplinary Applied Natural Science is the first publisher, licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges and earlier and greater citation of published work.
References
Abdul, S. S., Ramaswamy, M., Fernandez-Luque, L., John, O., Pitti, T., & Parashar, B. (2021). The Pandemic, Infodemic, and People’s Resilience in India: Viewpoint. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 7(12), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.2196/31645
Al Khalili, S., Al Maani, A., Al Wahaibi, A., Al Yaquobi, F., Al-Jardani, A., Al Harthi, K., Alqayoudhi, A., Al Manji, A., Al Rawahi, B., & Al-Abri, S. (2021). Challenges and Opportunities for Public Health Service in Oman From the COVID-19 Pandemic: Learning Lessons for a Better Future. Frontiers in Public Health, 9(December), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.770946
Alnizar, F., & Manshur, F. M. (2022). The Political Language of Disaster: Indonesian Government Communication for Handling the Covid-19 Pandemic. Jurnal Ilmu Sosial Dan Ilmu Politik, 25(3), 240–254. https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.66443
APJII. (2025). Survei Penetrasi Internet dan Perilaku Penggunaan Internet. https://survei.apjii.or.id
Aspriadis, N. (2021). Managing COVID-19 Pandemic Crisis: The Case of Greece. Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research, 4(2), 387–412. https://doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.4.2.8
Bayu, D. J. (2020, March 2). Jokowi Bantah Insentif Pariwisata Tambah Risiko Penyebaran Corona. Katadata. https://katadata.co.id/berita/2020/03/02/jokowi-bantah-insentif-pariwisata-tambah-risiko-penyebaran-corona
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2014). CERC: Crisis Communication Plans. In Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (CERC) Manual. CDC. https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/ppt/CERC_Crisis_Communication_Plans.pdf
Chen, Q., Min, C., Zhang, W., Wang, G., Ma, X., & Evans, R. (2020). Unpacking the black box: How to promote citizen engagement through government social media during the COVID-19 crisis. Computers in Human Behavior, 110(March). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106380
Chen, Y., Peng, G., Tu, Y., & Ren, T. (2025). A Study of Risk Communication and Perceptions of Official and Public Agendas in the Context of Emergencies: Based on the Itaewon Stampede. SAGE Open, 15(2), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440251339461
Chhim, S., Ku, G., Mao, S., Van De Put, W., Van Damme, W., Ir, P., Chhea, C., & Or, V. (2023). Descriptive assessment of COVID-19 responses and lessons learnt in Cambodia, January 2020 to June 2022. BMJ Global Health, 8(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2023-011885
Christensen, T., & Lægreid, P. (2020). The coronavirus crisis—crisis communication, meaning-making, and reputation management. International Public Management Journal, 23(5), 713–729. https://doi.org/10.1080/10967494.2020.1812455
Claeys, A.-S., & Cauberghe, V. (2014). What makes crisis response strategies work? The impact of crisis involvement and message framing. Journal of Business Research, 67(2), 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2012.10.005
Coombs, W. T. (2007). Protecting Organization Reputations During a Crisis: The Development and Application of Situational Crisis Communication Theory. Corporate Reputation Review, 10(3), 163–176. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.crr.1550049
Coombs, W. T. (2015). Ongoing Crisis Communication: Planning, Managing, and Responding (4th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Coombs, W. T. (2019). Ongoing Crisis Communication (5th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc.
Coombs, W. T., & Holladay, S. J. (2002). Helping crisis managers protect reputational assets: initial test of the situational crisis communication theory. Management Communication Quarterly, 16(2), 165–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/089331802237233
Djalante, R., Lassa, J., Setiamarga, D., Sudjatma, A., Indrawan, M., Haryanto, B., Mahfud, C., Sinapoy, M. S., Susanti, D., Rafliana, I., Gunawan, L. A., Surtiari, G. A. K., & Warsilah, H. (2020). Review and analysis of current responses to COVID-19 in Indonesia: Period of January to March 2020. Progress in Disaster Science, 6(January), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100091
Elhersh, G. A., Khan, M. L., Malik, A., Al-Umairi, M., & Alqawasmeh, H. K. (2024). Instagram for audience engagement: an evaluation of CERC framework in the GCC nations for digital public health during the Covid-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-18957-1
Faustyna. (2020). Coordination of Communication Crisis Model 1. Indonesian Journal of Education, Social Sciences and Research (IJESSR), 1(2), 79–86. http://jurnal.umsu.ac.id/index.php/ijessr
Ganesan, D. (2022). Human Rights Implications of the Digital Revolution in Health Care in India. Health and Human Rights, 24(1), 5–19. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/35747286%0Ahttp://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=PMC9212836
Guo, Y., Liu, J., & Lian, C. (2025). Promote citizen engagement with warnings ― an empirical examination of government social media accounts during public health crises. BMC Public Health, 25(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-025-22760-x
Handayani, S., & Khoiriyah, R. (2022). Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat. Jurnal Kesehatan Masyarakat, 18(2), 156–163. https://doi.org/10.15294/ kemas.v18i2.27662
Human Rights Watch. (2020). Indonesia: Little Transparency in COVID-19 Outbreak. https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/09/indonesia-little-transparency-covid-19-outbreak?utm
Ida, R., Kinasih, S. E., Febriyanti, S. N., Puspa, R., Saud, M., & Bakar, M. S. A. (2024). COVID-19 vaccine rumour and resistance in Indonesia: Analysing vaccine hesitancy and cultural myths circulated on online platforms. Vacunas (English Edition), 25(3), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacune.2024.08.003
Ihekweazu, V., Ejibe, U., Kaduru, C., Disu, Y., Oyebanji, O., Oguanuo, E., Anueyiagu, C., Obanor, O. O., Akande-Alegbe, A., Egwuenu, A., Ojumu, T., Abara, A. E., & Ochu, C. L. (2022). Implementing an emergency risk communication campaign in response to the COVID-19 pandemic in Nigeria: lessons learned. BMJ Global Health, 7(5). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-008846
Ikhsan, M. (2020, February 9). Sekeluarga Suspect Corona di Tanjungpinang, Wali Kota Langsung Gelar Rapat. Batam News. https://www.batamnews.co.id/berita-58726-sekeluarga-suspect-corona-di-tanjungpinang-wali-kota-langsung-gelar-rapat.html
Intan, G. (2022, June 22). WHO Puji Penanganan Pandemi COVID-19 di Indonesia. VOA Indonesia. https://www.voaindonesia.com/a/who-puji-penanganan-pandemi-covid-19-di-indonesia/6626954.html
Islam, K., Al-Zaman, M. S., & Akhther, N. (2025). Value-Driven Brand Crisis and Corporate Reputation Management on Social Media: Applying Situational Crisis Communication Theory in the Global South. International Journal of Strategic Communication, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/1553118X.2025.2544313
Karim, A. (2023). The Working of Malaysian Foreign Policy: A Historical Survey with Case Studies. USM.
Karim, N., Jing, L., Austin Lee, J., Kharel, R., Lubetkin, D., Clancy, C. M., Uwamahoro, D., Nahayo, E., Biramahire, J., Aluisio, A. R., & Ndebwanimana, V. (2021). Lessons learned from Rwanda: Innovative strategies for prevention and containment of COVID-19. Annals of Global Health, 87(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.3172
Kartikawangi, D., & Dahesihsari, R. (2020). Ikatan Sarjana Komunikasi Indonesia ( ISKI ). Jurnal Komunikasi Ikatan Sarjana Komunikasi Indonesia, 5(2), 189–198. https://doi.org/10.25008/jkiski.v5i2.419
Ki, E.-J., & Brown, K. A. (2013). The Effects of Crisis Response Strategies on Relationship Quality Outcomes. Journal of Business Communication, 50(4), 403–420. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021943613497056
Kim, H. K., & Yang, S.-U. (2009). Cognitive processing of crisis communication: Effects of CSR and crisis response strategies on stakeholder perceptions of a racial crisis dynamics. Public Relations Journal, 3(1), 1–39. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Cognitive-Processing-of-Crisis-Communication%3A-of-on-Kim-Yang/cf0c22bb6e5f6af1c6bfa9fc128c1e1a3b63a8a5
Kwok, L., Lee, J., & Han, S. H. (2021). Crisis Communication on Social Media: What Types of COVID-19 Messages Get the Attention? Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 1(16). https://doi.org/10.1177/19389655211028143
London, J., & Matthews, K. (2022). Crisis communication on social media - lessons from Covid-19. Journal of Decision Systems, 31(1–2), 150–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/12460125.2021.1926612
Lusianawati, H. (2020). Inkonsistensi Kebijakan Pemerintah Dalam Menangani Pandemi Covid-19. The Source: Jurnal Ilmu Komuniasi, 2(2), 21–39. https://jurnal.usahid.ac.id/index.php/ilmu_komunikasi/article/view/306/274
Masduki, A., Niu, P., & Yana, M. E. (2022). Indonesian government crisis communication facing coronavirus pandemic. International Journal of Communication and Society, 4(1), 48–58. https://doi.org/10.31763/ijcs.v4i1.207
Mietzner, M. (2020). Populist Anti-Scientism, Religious Polarisation, and Institutionalised Corruption: How Indonesia’s Democratic Decline Shaped Its COVID-19 Response. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 39(2), 227–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1868103420935561
Moloney, K., & Moloney, S. (2020). Australian Quarantine Policy: From Centralization to Coordination with Mid-Pandemic COVID-19 Shifts. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 671–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13224
Ndone, J., & Park, J. (2022). Crisis communication: The mediating role of cognitive and affective empathy in the relationship between crisis type and crisis response strategy on post-crisis reputation and forgiveness. Public Relations Review, 48(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2021.102136
Neville Miller, A., Collins, C., Neuberger, L., Todd, A., Sellnow, T., & Bouteman, L. (2021). Being First, Being Right, and Being Credible Since 2002: A Systematic Review of Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication (CERC) Research. Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research, 4(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.30658/jicrcr.4.1.1
Nova, H. A., Rahmanto, A. N., & Sudarmo. (2021). The Tourism Sector Government Crisis Communication at the Beginning of the Covid-19 Pandemic : Strategies for Utilizing Instagram Social Media. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding, 8(12), 274–284. https://doi.org/10.18415/ijmmu.v8i12.3198
Nugroho, Y., & Syarief, S. S. (2021). Grave Failures in Policy and Communication in Indonesia during the COVID-19 Pandemic. ISEAS Perspective. https://www.iseas.edu.sg/articles-commentaries/iseas-perspective/2021-113-grave-failures-in-policy-and-communication-in-indonesia-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-by-yanuar-nugroho-and-sofie-shinta-syarief/
Nurfadhilah, A., Rahmanto, A., & Muhammad, A. (2022). Crisis Communication by the Indonesian Government in Handling Covid-19. 2021 Annual Conference of Indonesian Association for Public Administration, 674–689. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v7i5.10586
Nurita, D., & Wibowo, E. A. (2022, March 3). 2 Tahun Pandemi Covid-19, Ringkasan Perjalanan Wabah Corona di Indonesia. Tempo.Co. https://nasional.tempo.co/read/1566720/2-tahun-pandemi-covid-19-ringkasan-perjalanan-wabah-corona-di-indonesia
Radityo, M., & Aliansyah, M. A. (2020, February 9). CEK FAKTA: Tidak Benar Enam WNI di Kepri Terpapar Virus Corona. Merdeka. https://www.merdeka.com/cek-fakta/cek-fakta-tidak-benar-enam-wni-di-kepri-terpapar-voirus-corona.html
Reynolds, B., & Seeger, M. (2014). Crisis and Emergency Risk Communication 2014 Edition: Be First, Be Right, Be Credible (J. Cox, M. Gaines-McCollom, N. Grimsley, A. Herbert, L. Jonathan, N. M. Maiden, D. Olivares, V. Sinks, C. Shockey, L. Berryman, L. E. Pechta, & P. O. Williams (Eds.); 2014th ed.). U.S. Department of Health and Humasn Services Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Reynolds, B., & Seeger, M. W. (2007). Crisis and emergency risk communication as an integrative model. Journal of Health Communication, 43–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730590904571
Ridlo, I. A. (2022). Failing to deliver coherency: Indonesian government’s COVID-19 policy communication. https://acehap.org/2022/02/15/failing-to-deliver-coherency-indonesian-governments-covid-19-policy-communication/
Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Vidal-Bover, M. (2023). Decentralisation, unfunded mandates and the regional response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Regional Studies, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2023.2279105
Sampaio, L. R., & Nóbrega, J. F. (2025). Brazilian attitudes towards Covid-19 and its relationship with personal conditions, political identification, empathy and susceptibility to accept fake news: a study during the third wave. Discover Public Health, 22(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-025-00652-0
Sandoval-Almazan, R., & Valle-Cruz, D. (2021). Social media use in government health agencies: The COVID-19 impact. Information Polity, 26(4), 459–475. https://doi.org/10.3233/IP-210326
Satuan Tugas Penanganan Covid-19. (2022). Peta Sebaran Covid-19 di Indonesia. Covid19.Go.Id. https://covid19.go.id/id/peta-sebaran
Seeger, M. W. (2006). Best practices in crisis communication: An expert panel process. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 34(3), 232–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/00909880600769944
Setiawana, A., Nurmandi, A., Purnomo, E. P., & Muhammad, A. (2021). Disinformation and Miscommunication in Government Communication in Handling COVID-19 Pandemic. Webology, 18(1), 203–218. https://doi.org/10.14704/WEB/V18I1/WEB18084
Shalihah, N. F., & Hardiyanto, S. (2020, August 24). Penanganan Covid-19 di Indonesia Dinilai Kurang Berhasil, Ini Alasannya... Kompas.Com. https://www.kompas.com/tren/read/2020/08/24/083100765/penanganan-covid-19-di-indonesia-dinilai-kurang-berhasil-ini-alasannya-?page=all.
Shulman, H. C., & Bullock, O. M. (2020). Don’t dumb it down: The effects of jargon in COVID-19 crisis communication. PLoS ONE, 15(10), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0239524
Siahaan, C. (2022). Kontribusi disinformasi pemerintah tentang pencegahan penyebaran covid-19 terhadap kepatuhan masyarakat menjalankan protokol kesehatan. JPPI (Jurnal Penelitian Pendidikan Indonesia), 8(1), 208–217. https://doi.org/10.29210/020221309
Su, Z., McDonnell, D., Wen, J., Kozak, M., Abbas, J., Šegalo, S., Li, X., Ahmad, J., Cheshmehzangi, A., Cai, Y., Yang, L., & Xiang, Y. T. (2021). Mental health consequences of COVID-19 media coverage: the need for effective crisis communication practices. Globalization and Health, 17(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-00654-4
Sujarwoto, Maharani, A., Holipah, Andarini, S., Saputri, R. A. M., Pakpahan, E., Oceandy, D., & Tampubolon, G. (2023). Understanding COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy: A cross-sectional study in Malang District, Indonesia. Frontiers in Public Health, 10(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1030695
Surahmat, A., Dida, S., & Zubair, F. (2021). Analysis of the Government’s Crisis Communication Strategy Discourse to Defend Covid-19. Jurnal Komunikasi, 13(1), 36–53. https://doi.org/10.24912/jk.vl3il.9272
Sutton, J., Renshaw, S. L., & Butts, C. T. (2020). COVID-19: Retransmission of official communications in an emerging pandemic. PLoS ONE, 15(9 September), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238491
Tagliacozzo, S., Albrecht, F., & Ganapati, N. E. (2021). International Perspectives on COVID-19 Communication Ecologies: Public Health Agencies’ Online Communication in Italy, Sweden, and the United States. American Behavioral Scientist, 65(7), 934–955. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764221992832
Tessema, G. A., Kinfu, Y., Dachew, B. A., Tesema, A. G., Assefa, Y., Alene, K. A., Aregay, A. F., Ayalew, M. B., Bezabhe, W. M., Bali, A. G., Dadi, A. F., Duko, B., Erku, D., Gebrekidan, K., Gebremariam, K. T., Gebremichael, L. G., Gebreyohannes, E. A., Gelaw, Y. A., Gesesew, H. A., … Tesfay, F. H. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and healthcare systems in Africa: A scoping review of preparedness, impact and response. BMJ Global Health, 6(11), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007179
World Health Organization. (2017). Communicating Risk in Public Health Emergencies: A WHO Guidelines for Emergency Risk Communication (ERC) Policy and Practice. In A WHO guideline for emergency risk communication (ERC) policy and practice.
World Health Organization. (2023). https://www.who.int
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods. In Theory and Methods of Metallurgical Process Integration (6th ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://uk.sagepub.com/en-gb/eur/case-study-research-and-applications/book250150
Yudarwati, G. A., Putranto, I. A., Ratriyana, I. N., & Parera, P. (2023). Towards an Interactive and Participatory Risk Communication: Lessons Learned from COVID-19 in Indonesia. Cogent Social Sciences, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2023.2221594